Casey Adams, IHD11.01.05
Nutraceutical companies that continue to tap the ocean for nutrition should not only be concerned with profitability and market size, but also sustainability and stewardship. Over the past couple of years, two important studies have been released that address the latter issue. The "Pew Oceans Commission Final Report" and Congress' "Oceans Commissions Report" both sent urgent messages to the marine harvesting and coastal development industries, the essence of which can besummed up by Dr. Wallace Nichols, who is a research associate at the California Academy of Sciences: "Too much is being dumped into the oceans, too much is being taken out andcoastline habitats are quickly being destroyed."
Other issues upsetting the delicate balance in the world's oceans, according to Jeanette Lam, communications officer of Canada's Fisheries and Oceans, are rising water temperatures, illegal and over-fishing, bycatch, pollution and food chain imbalances.
These combined factors could be problematic to an environmentally-conscious nutraceutical industry seeking to sustain supply, keep costs down and sell healthy products. As such, many challenges lie ahead as the industry learns to adapt to increasingly environmentally-focused consumers.
The issue of toxicity is tantamount within the oceans today. Marine life studies are showing higher levels of mercury, lead, arsenic, cadmium and other heavy metals. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), petroleum, E. coli, and other bacteria from waste run-off are also bio-accumulating up the food chain. A new dangerous toxin identified recently is plastic, which is currently present at levels surprising many ocean experts. As plastics break down into smaller particles they are absorbed by filtering marine life and passed up the food chain. Three studies conducted by Captain Charles Moore of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA, found an astounding 10:1 ratio of plastic particles-to-plankton in some areas. Requiring nearly 500 years to breakdown, plastics are known to disrupt hormones and accumulate hydrocarbons1,2.
Many major fisheries around the world are in trouble because several fish species are in decline or near extinction. While fish farms seem like a viable alternative, ocean experts like Dr. Nichols remain concerned about the uncirculated contaminant levels of these farms, as well as the risk of viruses and genetic manipulation releasing into the wild. Bycatch issues are also critical concerns for scientists, with sharks, porpoises, turtles and other species approaching endangerment due to accidental netting. "The problem is worse than being reported," according to Dr. Nichols, who is also the director of Ocean Revolution, an organization formed to help protect the world's oceans. "Many fishing regions around the world have little or no system for reporting their catches."
According to data from SPINS, San Francisco, CA, U.S. fish oil sales over the previous year grew over 54% in the natural foods channel and over 31% in the conventional channel3. The thirst for fish oils has been fueled by studies showing docosahexaenoic acid's (DHA) various health benefits. Additionally, new microencapsulation technologies have attracted new entries from various supplement and nutraceutical manufacturers.
But the pressure on the raw fish oil and fish supply is undoubtedly increasing. Independent projections indicate that there will be a critical fish oil shortage between 2010 and 2015. If consumption levels continue to increase, this shortage may arrive sooner. Crude fish oil costs are reflecting this, as industrial crude fish oil prices have increased 175%-225% over the past five years. This trend is anticipated to continue as fish stocks come under further pressure and the cost of purification to reduce toxin levels rises.
Fish do not produce DHA. In fact, they obtain DHA by eating algae or eating fish that eat algae. Marine nutraceutical companies like Martek Biosciences Corporation, Columbia, MD, have located high-content DHA-producing microalgae and are harvesting DHA oil from toxin-free algal-fermentation tanks. Two of the highest DHA-producing microorganisms are Crypthecodinium cohnii, and Schizochytrium spp. Martek and its contracted producers now grow these two species, and have had increasing success in both the supplement and food/beverage markets.
The 22 carbon chain, six double-bond arrangement of DHA is either stored or converted to 20, 5 double-bond eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in fish. Typical crude fish oil will supply approximately 18% EPA and 12% DHA, subject to seasonal and species differences, while algal DHA like Martek's will supply a standardized 35% DHA. "EPA is short-lived within the body, while DHA remains longer. DHA is either stored or used by needed cells, while easily converting to EPA as needed," according to Martek food scientist Ruben Abril, PhD. Sustainability doesn't seem to be an issue for algal DHA, as capacity can be added with demand. Although pound-for-pound current pricing for algal DHA oil is higher than fish oil, calculated as DHA level, algal DHA is competitively-priced with molecular-distilled, microencapsulated fish oil, claims Beth Schimel Parker, public relations manager for Martek.
The shellfish category is receiving a lot of attention these days, especially from an environmental perspective. Chris LaRock, emergency response officer, Environment Canada, characterized the current situation as critical. "Chronic non-point source pollution from urbanization is increasingly endangering marine stocks, as bottom-feeders accumulate these toxins," he said. These bottom-feeders include shrimp, scallops, clams, oysters and mussels, which are increasingly becoming toxic as a result. In addition, many shellfish species are now restricted for harvest because of low populations and bycatch issues. Dr. Nichols says most people aren't aware of shellfish trawling techniques. As a result, he said, "These shellfish are being caught by literally scraping huge areas of the ocean floor, damaging or killing coral, sea turtles, sponges, rays and other sea life. In fact, 50-90% of shrimp hauls are accidental bycatch." He likened the situation to clear-cutting a forest to gather a few mushrooms.
Shellfish aquaculture is another environmental concern, according to scientists and government officials like Dr. Nichols and Mr. LaRock. Traditional shellfish aquaculture are installed in coastal areas by clearing the seafloor of important plants like mangroves and fish habitats to isolate the shellfish. Ocean experts believe this practice is severely endangering precious coastal habitats.
Meanwhile, shellfish-derived glucosamine, a marine nutraceutical superstar, has seen sales soften over the past year, falling some 6% in the U.S.3. This could be related to continued debate surrounding the efficacy of marine-derived glucosamine. In fact, a recent study showed little increase in blood glucosamine sulfate after ingestion4. An alternative to shellfish-derived glucosamine is glucosamine hydrochloride (HCl), which comes from the fungi Aspergillus niger5. Since it is not bound to potassium, the HCl version reportedly has 83% active glucosamine versus 51% for sulfate. Research has also shown glucosamine HCl to be readily assimilable6. This news, combined with a recent report about labeling problems in 70% of 10 leading glucosamine sulfate brands, may prompt future focus on the alternative, more sustainable HCl supply7. For now, however, the results of two highly anticipated glucosamine trials (one studying the HCl form and the other studying the sulfate form) will undoubtedly breathe new life into both of these categories. (See page 16 in Industry News for more information on recent glucosamine trials.)
Sea mussels have been increasingly threatened by over-harvesting throughout the years, prompting some regulatory bodies to restrict both wild-craft mussel harvesting and aquaculture (which draws its seeds from wild mussel stocks). New Maine state regulations, for example, limit blue mussel seed removal to four "seed mussel conservation areas," because of depletion fears8. Aquacultured mussels have been plagued with other difficulties over the years, including seasonal die-offs, attachment issues and shipping problems. Meanwhile, wild-harvested stocks have been damaged by toxicity and PSP-red tide toxin-resulting in a number of reported illnesses9,10.
Clinical research on the green-lipped mussel from New Zealand has shown effectiveness in relieving symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Unfortunately, however, there have also been conflicting studies showing little or no benefit. Studies have also pointed out side effects such as nausea, skin rashes, flatulence, gout, and of course, shellfish allergies11-15.
Slipping Shark Cartilage Sales
Worldwide shark populations are under pressure and shark cartilage sales continue to fall. Over the last year, category sales fell a whopping 18% to just under $1 million (outside of Wal-Mart)3. Adding further insult to the category is new research showing a lack of significant benefit to cancer patients16. A recent article even goes as far as to say "shark cartilage cancer treatments are pseudoscience17."
Shark cartilage's chondroitin sulfate component has also shown limited usefulness in osteoarthritis research, primarily because its large molecular structure limits its absorption across the intestinal wall18. With absorption rates of less than 15% and only partial absorption of that amount into joints, synthetic versions of lower-molecular weight chondroitin appear to be the future19. Lastly, there have been negative reports of side effects related to shark cartilage chondroitin consumption, including hair loss and gastrointestinal (GI) problems20. It seems the lack of a confirmed shark cartilage cancer benefit and low chondroitin absorption may in fact result in saving the shark population from endangerment.
Notably, most nutrients from the ocean's plant kingdom do not come with the same over-harvesting and bycatch baggage. Most are either cultivated or sustainably wildcrafted-with stationary seasonal blooms forcing self-regulation. Because they rely upon photosynthesis rather than filtering, algae do not ingest toxins as feeders do, which limits toxicity concerns. Along with DHA-algae, there are a number of new and developing algae-based nutraceuticals showing a variety of health benefits.
The some 70,000 known algae are typically divided into three general types: chlorophyta or green algae, phaeophyta or brown algae and rhodophyta or red algae. These types of algae range from single-celled microalgae to giant broad-leafed kelps. In terms of environmental economics, sea vegetables trump all other food sources. While an acre of beef production yields about 20 pounds of useable protein and an acre of soybeans yields about 400 pounds, typical seaweeds like nori can yield 800 pounds per acre of tidal zone, and spirulina can yield a whopping 21,000 pounds of useable protein per acre of cultivation21.
Commercial microalgae products are produced from species like spirulina, blue-green algae from Klamath Lake and chlorella. The market for these algae products has been flourishing over the past 30 years, with several successful, even public companies leading the charge. Two notable spirulina producers are Cyanotech Corporation, Kailua Kona, HI, and Earthrise Nutritionals, Inc., Irvine, CA. Cyanotech is a publicly-held company founded in 1983, which cultivates spirulina in 58 600x50 foot ponds on the sunny side of the Big Island in Hawaii. Earthrise cultivates an undisclosed "pondage" in sunny Southern California.
Although the spirulina market is somewhat mature, Cyanotech's spirulina sales have maintained consistent growth with 2-5% yearly increases. With a wealth of research behind it, spirulina is increasingly being used as a nutraceutical ingredient in variety of supplements, foods and beverages. "Several clinical studies have showed rather profound results in the reduction of inflammation, reduced brain damage from stroke, reduced allergy and detailed biochemical description of the anti-cancer apoptic mechanism," said Ronald Henson, vice president, Earthrise.
Spirulina's nutritional content is impressive, as it contains all the essential and most non-essential amino acids (55-65% protein by weight), in addition to a number of vitamins like B12 and phytonutrients like zeaxanthin, myoxanthophyll and lutein. Last year marked a significant turning point for the ingredient when it was awarded generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status, paving the way for its inclusion into several foods and beverages positioned as (1) a good source of carotenoids, vitamins and minerals; (2) support of healthy eyes; and (3) an immune function booster. The recent GRAS approval, according to Cyanotech CEO Gerry Cysewski, PhD, has certainly sparked renewed interest in spirulina as a nutraceutical ingredient.
Chlorella pyrensoidosa, or simply chlorella, is a true blue-green microalgae. Like spirulina, it is also cultured in outdoor ponds. With over 800 published studies verifying its safety and efficacy for several health issues, chlorella enjoys strong acceptance in the mass market. In particular, its ability to detoxify heavy metals and other toxins makes it a favorite among health professionals.
According to Bob McCauley, author and president of chlorella importer, Watershed Wellness Center, Lansing, MI, "Chlorella is a unique source of dietary fiber that binds to heavy metals and other toxins, efficiently carrying them from the body." Phytonutrients C.G.F. (chlorella growth factor), beta-carotene, various vitamins, and the fact that it is a complete protein (40%-60%+ by weight), also make chlorella a popular nutraceutical.
Clinical studies have shown that chlorella contributes to increased cell growth, stimulates T-cell and B-cell activities and increases macrophage function, contributing to improvements in fibromyalgia, hypertension and ulcerative colitis22. Its cell wall is relatively tough, but most producers have developed ways of pulverizing or crushing the cell wall, allowing efficient assimilation of its nutrients in the body. The polysaccharides and fiber from its broken cell walls give chlorella its unique ability to bind to toxins in the body23.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, or simply 'AFA,' grows on the pristine volcanic waters of the Klamath Lake in Oregon. Commercial harvesting began in the early 1980s. Although contamination has been a concern, today companies like AFA, Inc., Mt. Shasta, CA, are micro-filtering for potential contaminants, and more nutraceutical companies are including AFA in their nutraceutical formulations. "AFA is one of the most bioavailable sources of nutrients due to its soft cell wall," explained Scott Springer, veteran AFA harvester and CEO of AFA, Inc. "Due to the lake's environment and volcanic lakebed, it has all of the essential amino acids (60% by weight), is packed with beta-carotene and many vitamins, has 58 minerals at ppm levels and has one of the highest chlorophyll levels."
Another exciting green microalgae is Haematococcus pluvialis, which is one of the highest known natural sources of astaxanthin. It is an "exciting new product for the nutrition industry because it has a growing base of scientific studies supporting its health benefits," said Dr. Cysewski.
Astaxanthin is an oxygenated carotenoid with high antioxidant properties, "some 500 times the antioxidant value of vitamin E," claims Laurence Sombardier, vice president and general manager of Mera Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Kailua Kona, HI, another leading natural astaxanthin producer. Recent studies have shown astaxanthin to be effective for reducing inflammation and stimulating the immune system. In vitro and in vivo studies have also shown anti-tumor effects, as well as effectiveness in preventing and treating retinal oxidative damage and macular degeneration24. The antioxidant and cancer inhibitory action of astaxanthin has also been shown to be greater than beta-carotene. "We've even had reports from marathoners and tri-athletes that it increases their exercise recovery rates," said Miguel Olaizola, PhD, Mera's director of research. Dr. Olaizola suggests dosages of 5 mg per day for a typical person and 10-15 mg for athletes or those with inflammation. Mera studied 30 people for 28 days and found up to 20 mg to be a safe dose.
Another company that is active on the astaxanthin front is Valensa, Eustis, FL, with its patented Zanthin ingredient. Zanthin is comprised of a standardized extract of astaxanthin complex. Valensa attributes astaxanthin's health benefits to the fact that it freely crosses the blood-brain and blood-retina barriers. Due to this ability, the company claims that astaxanthin can readily neutralize free-radicals and other reactive species in the eye and nervous system.
Valensa's brand of natural astaxanthin is manufactured from the microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis grown in closed culture using ultrapure water. Once the tough cell wall of the algae is cracked open it is highly unstable and must be extracted immediately. Valensa utilizes a proprietary extraction process to yield a stabilized and standardized 10% oleoresin. The 10% extracted oleoresin contains an astaxanthin complex composed of approximately 85-90% astaxanthin, 2% lutein, 2% beta-carotene and 6% various other carotenoids.
Astaxanthin is now a widely utilized ingredient in multivitamins, condition-specific formulas, single ingredient supplements and cosmeceuticals, such as sunscreens and lip balms. However, most astaxanthin players are hoping that astaxanthin will achieve GRAS status in the near future, so that its growth potential can be more fully realized.
Red marine algae have become exciting nutraceuticals with confirmed health benefits. Attracting a lot interest lately is Dumontiae, a larger-leaf Rhodaphyte typically harvested in colder oceans either by wildcrafting or rope-farming. "Rope-farming is highly sustainable," says Bob "Desert" Nichols. Mr. Nichols claims he practically single-handedly developed the first commercial market for red marine algae under the Pure Planet label, a nutraceutical brand he founded in the mid-1990s. Dumontiae and other rhodophytes have been confirmed in vivo and in vitro to inhibit growth of several viruses, notably herpes simplex I and II, and HIV. Most studies have pointed to their heparin-like sulfated polysaccharide content for antiviral effects, blocking both DNA and retroviral replication. "We worked a lot with AIDS groups," says Mr. Nichols. "Word of mouth got out and we were able to help many AIDS and HIV sufferers."
Pure Planet is now owned and produced by Organic By Nature, Inc., a well-known supplier and contract-packer of various green food-based nutraceutical products. Organic By Nature's CEO, Dave Sandoval, claims that red marine algae is one of the company's largest revenue producers. "Just about all our distribution outlets carry our red marine algae because of its dedicated consumer base. We buy the algae in bulk leaf form, pulverize, screen and test it in-house for standardization," he says.
Now other rhodophytes are being studied for antiviral effects. Michael Neushul, PhD, from UC Santa Barbara's Biology Department has reported antiviral properties among all 39 California red marine algae varieties tested. Sulfated polysaccharides, such as carrageenan, were pointed to as the central antiviral constituents, as well as dextran sulfate and other heparinoids. Retrovirus inhibition and murine leukemia inhibition properties have also been shown in vivo28-30.
Red algae have several food uses as well. Gelatinous polysaccharides agar, carageenan and funoran are now used extensively in the food business as stabilizers. Agar contains calcium, iodine, bromine and other trace minerals. Some red algae also produce sorbitol, which is used as a sugar substitute. Due to such wide application, thousands of tons of various red algae are shipped into the U.S. every year for use in food manufacturing.
There are about 1500 species of sea vegetables, many of which flourish in the cold waters of the North Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Well known sea vegetables include nori, wakame, dulse, kombu, Irish moss, sea palm and several species of laminaria. Though not particularly correct, most sea vegetables are often referred to as kelps.
Wild sea vegetables are harvested periodically and re-growth is managed carefully-easy to do since the kelp beds are stationary. Out of necessity, kelp farmers have sustainable supply, and some areas have more than enough to supply market growth. According to Bill Wolf, CEO of Thorvin Kelp, Inc., New Castle, VA, "We have enough kelp in our fjord (bay) in Iceland to easily supply several times the 1000 metric tons per year we're at now." Thorvin's harvesters "will GPS-map bloom locations and carefully cut each bed four to seven years apart, allowing it to re-grow between harvests," he said.
These sea vegetables have an impressive array of vitamins-more than most land-based vegetables-with A, B1, B2, B5, B12, C, B6, B3, folic acid, E, K and a steroid vitamin D precursor. Nori and dulse have beta-carotene levels as high as 50,000 IU per 100 grams, for example. Mr. Wolf says his certified organic kelps are showing 60 minerals at ppm levels. They are also good sources of calcium and magnesium. The brown algae also contain all the essential amino acids and are high in protein by weight, with nori as high as 30% and most averaging about 9%. Laminaria is also used to produce the sugar substitute mannitol23.
Although the GRAS standards refer to kelp as a good source of iodine (one reason for kelps being overlooked, say kelp producers), their nutritional muscle makes them versatile nutraceuticals. They are routinely used in skin care formulations, supplements, salt-substitutes (salty flavor is mostly potassium) and various food formulations. Sea vegetables also contain several beneficial polysaccharides and polyphenols. One such sulfated polysaccharide, fucoidan, has been shown to have anti-tumor, anticoagulant and anti-angiogenic properties. Studies show it also down-regulates Th2 (inhibiting allergic response), inhibits beta-amyloid formation (potential cause of Alzheimer's), inhibits proteinuria in Heymann nephritis and decreases artery platelet deposits in vivo25-27.NW
About the author: Casey Adams, IHD, AMP, is a doctor of integrative health and is board certified as an alternative medical practitioner. With many years of service in the organic, natural food, nutraceutical and herbal industries, he currently consults and conducts workshops at the Wellness & Rehabilitation Medical Center in Watsonville, CA. He can be reached at casey@realnaturalhealth.com.
References
1. CBS Radio Network. "The Osgood File." 2003. Plastic in the Plankton. ACFNewsource. July 10.
2. Moore C. 2002. "Tales of Plastic in the Ocean." Algalita Marine Research Foundation (AMRF) Nov 1.
3. Clute M. 2005. "Research pays in science and sales." The Natural Foods Merchandiser, June.
4. Biggee BA, et. al. 2005. "Low Levels of Human Serum Glucosamine After Ingestion of Glucosamine Sulfate Relative to Capability for Peripheral Effectiveness." Cancer. Jul 1;104(1):176-82.
5. News Headlines. 2004. "Cargill looking for entry to European glucosamine market." Nutraingredients.com. May 3.
6. Aghazadeh-Habashi A, et al. 2002. "Single dose pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of glucosamine in the rat." J Pharm Pharm Sci. May-Aug;5(2):181-4.
7. News. 2005. "Glucosamine pills come up short." Ann Rheum Dis. Aug 3.
8. Applied Biomonitoring. 2002. "Final Report, Kennebec River Caged Mussel Pilot Study," Contract No MDEP 2000, MDEP Agreement No. 800389, Submitted to Maine Department of Environmental Protection, DEP SHS 17, May.
9. Department of Marine Resources, State of Maine. 2004. "The Blue Mussel in Maine." Maine.gov.
10. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2005. "Profile of the Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis)." Tidal Waters. April 1.
11. Larkin JG, et al. 1985. "Seatone in rheumatoid arthritis: a six-month placebo-controlled study." Ann Rheum Dis.44:199-201.
12. Highton TC and McArthur AW. 1975. "Pilot study on the effect of New Zealand Green Mussel on rheumatoid arthritis." N Z Med J. 81:261-2.
13. Gibson RG, et al. 1980. "Perna canaliculus in the treatment of arthritis. Practitioner. 224:955-60."
14. Brooks PM. 1980. "Side effects from Seatone." Med J Aust. 2:158.
15. Gibson SL and Gibson RG. 1998. "The treatment of arthritis with a lipid extract of Perna canaliculus: a randomized trial." Comp Ther Med. 6:1226.
16. Loprinzi CL, et al. 2002. "Evaluation of shark cartilage in patients with advanced cancer: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group trial." J Pharm Pharm Sci.May-Aug;5(2):181-4.
17. News. 2005. "Shark cartilage cancer treatments are pseudoscience." Health News. Mar;11(3):15.
18. Barthe L, et al. 2004. "In vitro intestinal degradation and absorption of chondroitin sulfate, a glycosaminoglycan drug." Arzneimittelforschung. 54(5):286-92.
19. Tully S, et. al. 2004. "A Chondroitin Sulfate Small Molecule that Stimulates Neuronal Growth." J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126 (25), 7736 -7737, 2004. 10.1021
20. Express Scripts, Inc. 2005. "Chondroitin." Drugdigest.org.
21. McConnaughey E. 1985. "Sea Vegetables." Naturegraph. Happy Camp, CA.
22. Merchant RE and Andre CA. 2001. "A review of recent clinical trials of the nutritional supplement Chlorella pyrenoidosa in the treatment of fibromyalgia, hypertension, and ulcerative colitis." Altern Ther Health Med. May-Jun;7(3):79-91.
23. McCauley B. 2005. "Achieving Great Health." Spartan, Lansing, MI.
24. Guerin M, et al. 2003. "Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition." Trends Biotechnol. May;21(5):210-6.
25. Kuznetsova TA, et al. 2004. "Biological activity of fucoidans from brown algae and the prospects of their use in medicine." Antibiot Khimioter. 49(5):24-30.
26. Nagaoka M, et al. 2000. "Anti-ulcer effects and biological activities of polysaccharides from marine algae." Biofactors. 12(1-4):267-74.
27. Berteau O and Mulloy B. 2003. "Sulfated fucans, fresh perspectives: structures, functions, and biological properties of sulfated fucans and an overview of enzymes active toward this class of polysaccharide." Glycobiology. Jun;13(6):29R-40R.
28. Neushul. 1990. "Antiviral carbohydrates from marine red algae." Hydrobiologia. 204/205:99-104.
29. Gonzales, et al. 1987. "Polysaccharides as antiviral agents: antiviral activity of carrageenan, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy". 31:1388-1393.
30. Straus, et al. 1984. "Suppression of frequently recurring gential herpes." N Eng J of Medicine;24:1545-50.
Other issues upsetting the delicate balance in the world's oceans, according to Jeanette Lam, communications officer of Canada's Fisheries and Oceans, are rising water temperatures, illegal and over-fishing, bycatch, pollution and food chain imbalances.
These combined factors could be problematic to an environmentally-conscious nutraceutical industry seeking to sustain supply, keep costs down and sell healthy products. As such, many challenges lie ahead as the industry learns to adapt to increasingly environmentally-focused consumers.
The Toxicity Factor
The issue of toxicity is tantamount within the oceans today. Marine life studies are showing higher levels of mercury, lead, arsenic, cadmium and other heavy metals. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), petroleum, E. coli, and other bacteria from waste run-off are also bio-accumulating up the food chain. A new dangerous toxin identified recently is plastic, which is currently present at levels surprising many ocean experts. As plastics break down into smaller particles they are absorbed by filtering marine life and passed up the food chain. Three studies conducted by Captain Charles Moore of the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA, found an astounding 10:1 ratio of plastic particles-to-plankton in some areas. Requiring nearly 500 years to breakdown, plastics are known to disrupt hormones and accumulate hydrocarbons1,2.
Over-Fishing & Bycatch Issues
Many major fisheries around the world are in trouble because several fish species are in decline or near extinction. While fish farms seem like a viable alternative, ocean experts like Dr. Nichols remain concerned about the uncirculated contaminant levels of these farms, as well as the risk of viruses and genetic manipulation releasing into the wild. Bycatch issues are also critical concerns for scientists, with sharks, porpoises, turtles and other species approaching endangerment due to accidental netting. "The problem is worse than being reported," according to Dr. Nichols, who is also the director of Ocean Revolution, an organization formed to help protect the world's oceans. "Many fishing regions around the world have little or no system for reporting their catches."
Omega 3s on the Up & Up
According to data from SPINS, San Francisco, CA, U.S. fish oil sales over the previous year grew over 54% in the natural foods channel and over 31% in the conventional channel3. The thirst for fish oils has been fueled by studies showing docosahexaenoic acid's (DHA) various health benefits. Additionally, new microencapsulation technologies have attracted new entries from various supplement and nutraceutical manufacturers.
But the pressure on the raw fish oil and fish supply is undoubtedly increasing. Independent projections indicate that there will be a critical fish oil shortage between 2010 and 2015. If consumption levels continue to increase, this shortage may arrive sooner. Crude fish oil costs are reflecting this, as industrial crude fish oil prices have increased 175%-225% over the past five years. This trend is anticipated to continue as fish stocks come under further pressure and the cost of purification to reduce toxin levels rises.
Fish do not produce DHA. In fact, they obtain DHA by eating algae or eating fish that eat algae. Marine nutraceutical companies like Martek Biosciences Corporation, Columbia, MD, have located high-content DHA-producing microalgae and are harvesting DHA oil from toxin-free algal-fermentation tanks. Two of the highest DHA-producing microorganisms are Crypthecodinium cohnii, and Schizochytrium spp. Martek and its contracted producers now grow these two species, and have had increasing success in both the supplement and food/beverage markets.
The 22 carbon chain, six double-bond arrangement of DHA is either stored or converted to 20, 5 double-bond eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in fish. Typical crude fish oil will supply approximately 18% EPA and 12% DHA, subject to seasonal and species differences, while algal DHA like Martek's will supply a standardized 35% DHA. "EPA is short-lived within the body, while DHA remains longer. DHA is either stored or used by needed cells, while easily converting to EPA as needed," according to Martek food scientist Ruben Abril, PhD. Sustainability doesn't seem to be an issue for algal DHA, as capacity can be added with demand. Although pound-for-pound current pricing for algal DHA oil is higher than fish oil, calculated as DHA level, algal DHA is competitively-priced with molecular-distilled, microencapsulated fish oil, claims Beth Schimel Parker, public relations manager for Martek.
Shellfish & Mollusks
The shellfish category is receiving a lot of attention these days, especially from an environmental perspective. Chris LaRock, emergency response officer, Environment Canada, characterized the current situation as critical. "Chronic non-point source pollution from urbanization is increasingly endangering marine stocks, as bottom-feeders accumulate these toxins," he said. These bottom-feeders include shrimp, scallops, clams, oysters and mussels, which are increasingly becoming toxic as a result. In addition, many shellfish species are now restricted for harvest because of low populations and bycatch issues. Dr. Nichols says most people aren't aware of shellfish trawling techniques. As a result, he said, "These shellfish are being caught by literally scraping huge areas of the ocean floor, damaging or killing coral, sea turtles, sponges, rays and other sea life. In fact, 50-90% of shrimp hauls are accidental bycatch." He likened the situation to clear-cutting a forest to gather a few mushrooms.
Shellfish aquaculture is another environmental concern, according to scientists and government officials like Dr. Nichols and Mr. LaRock. Traditional shellfish aquaculture are installed in coastal areas by clearing the seafloor of important plants like mangroves and fish habitats to isolate the shellfish. Ocean experts believe this practice is severely endangering precious coastal habitats.
Meanwhile, shellfish-derived glucosamine, a marine nutraceutical superstar, has seen sales soften over the past year, falling some 6% in the U.S.3. This could be related to continued debate surrounding the efficacy of marine-derived glucosamine. In fact, a recent study showed little increase in blood glucosamine sulfate after ingestion4. An alternative to shellfish-derived glucosamine is glucosamine hydrochloride (HCl), which comes from the fungi Aspergillus niger5. Since it is not bound to potassium, the HCl version reportedly has 83% active glucosamine versus 51% for sulfate. Research has also shown glucosamine HCl to be readily assimilable6. This news, combined with a recent report about labeling problems in 70% of 10 leading glucosamine sulfate brands, may prompt future focus on the alternative, more sustainable HCl supply7. For now, however, the results of two highly anticipated glucosamine trials (one studying the HCl form and the other studying the sulfate form) will undoubtedly breathe new life into both of these categories. (See page 16 in Industry News for more information on recent glucosamine trials.)
Mussel Fears
Sea mussels have been increasingly threatened by over-harvesting throughout the years, prompting some regulatory bodies to restrict both wild-craft mussel harvesting and aquaculture (which draws its seeds from wild mussel stocks). New Maine state regulations, for example, limit blue mussel seed removal to four "seed mussel conservation areas," because of depletion fears8. Aquacultured mussels have been plagued with other difficulties over the years, including seasonal die-offs, attachment issues and shipping problems. Meanwhile, wild-harvested stocks have been damaged by toxicity and PSP-red tide toxin-resulting in a number of reported illnesses9,10.
Clinical research on the green-lipped mussel from New Zealand has shown effectiveness in relieving symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Unfortunately, however, there have also been conflicting studies showing little or no benefit. Studies have also pointed out side effects such as nausea, skin rashes, flatulence, gout, and of course, shellfish allergies11-15.
Slipping Shark Cartilage Sales
Worldwide shark populations are under pressure and shark cartilage sales continue to fall. Over the last year, category sales fell a whopping 18% to just under $1 million (outside of Wal-Mart)3. Adding further insult to the category is new research showing a lack of significant benefit to cancer patients16. A recent article even goes as far as to say "shark cartilage cancer treatments are pseudoscience17."
Shark cartilage's chondroitin sulfate component has also shown limited usefulness in osteoarthritis research, primarily because its large molecular structure limits its absorption across the intestinal wall18. With absorption rates of less than 15% and only partial absorption of that amount into joints, synthetic versions of lower-molecular weight chondroitin appear to be the future19. Lastly, there have been negative reports of side effects related to shark cartilage chondroitin consumption, including hair loss and gastrointestinal (GI) problems20. It seems the lack of a confirmed shark cartilage cancer benefit and low chondroitin absorption may in fact result in saving the shark population from endangerment.
The Advantages of Algae
Notably, most nutrients from the ocean's plant kingdom do not come with the same over-harvesting and bycatch baggage. Most are either cultivated or sustainably wildcrafted-with stationary seasonal blooms forcing self-regulation. Because they rely upon photosynthesis rather than filtering, algae do not ingest toxins as feeders do, which limits toxicity concerns. Along with DHA-algae, there are a number of new and developing algae-based nutraceuticals showing a variety of health benefits.
The some 70,000 known algae are typically divided into three general types: chlorophyta or green algae, phaeophyta or brown algae and rhodophyta or red algae. These types of algae range from single-celled microalgae to giant broad-leafed kelps. In terms of environmental economics, sea vegetables trump all other food sources. While an acre of beef production yields about 20 pounds of useable protein and an acre of soybeans yields about 400 pounds, typical seaweeds like nori can yield 800 pounds per acre of tidal zone, and spirulina can yield a whopping 21,000 pounds of useable protein per acre of cultivation21.
The Market for Microalgae
Commercial microalgae products are produced from species like spirulina, blue-green algae from Klamath Lake and chlorella. The market for these algae products has been flourishing over the past 30 years, with several successful, even public companies leading the charge. Two notable spirulina producers are Cyanotech Corporation, Kailua Kona, HI, and Earthrise Nutritionals, Inc., Irvine, CA. Cyanotech is a publicly-held company founded in 1983, which cultivates spirulina in 58 600x50 foot ponds on the sunny side of the Big Island in Hawaii. Earthrise cultivates an undisclosed "pondage" in sunny Southern California.
Although the spirulina market is somewhat mature, Cyanotech's spirulina sales have maintained consistent growth with 2-5% yearly increases. With a wealth of research behind it, spirulina is increasingly being used as a nutraceutical ingredient in variety of supplements, foods and beverages. "Several clinical studies have showed rather profound results in the reduction of inflammation, reduced brain damage from stroke, reduced allergy and detailed biochemical description of the anti-cancer apoptic mechanism," said Ronald Henson, vice president, Earthrise.
Spirulina's nutritional content is impressive, as it contains all the essential and most non-essential amino acids (55-65% protein by weight), in addition to a number of vitamins like B12 and phytonutrients like zeaxanthin, myoxanthophyll and lutein. Last year marked a significant turning point for the ingredient when it was awarded generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status, paving the way for its inclusion into several foods and beverages positioned as (1) a good source of carotenoids, vitamins and minerals; (2) support of healthy eyes; and (3) an immune function booster. The recent GRAS approval, according to Cyanotech CEO Gerry Cysewski, PhD, has certainly sparked renewed interest in spirulina as a nutraceutical ingredient.
Chlorella pyrensoidosa, or simply chlorella, is a true blue-green microalgae. Like spirulina, it is also cultured in outdoor ponds. With over 800 published studies verifying its safety and efficacy for several health issues, chlorella enjoys strong acceptance in the mass market. In particular, its ability to detoxify heavy metals and other toxins makes it a favorite among health professionals.
According to Bob McCauley, author and president of chlorella importer, Watershed Wellness Center, Lansing, MI, "Chlorella is a unique source of dietary fiber that binds to heavy metals and other toxins, efficiently carrying them from the body." Phytonutrients C.G.F. (chlorella growth factor), beta-carotene, various vitamins, and the fact that it is a complete protein (40%-60%+ by weight), also make chlorella a popular nutraceutical.
Clinical studies have shown that chlorella contributes to increased cell growth, stimulates T-cell and B-cell activities and increases macrophage function, contributing to improvements in fibromyalgia, hypertension and ulcerative colitis22. Its cell wall is relatively tough, but most producers have developed ways of pulverizing or crushing the cell wall, allowing efficient assimilation of its nutrients in the body. The polysaccharides and fiber from its broken cell walls give chlorella its unique ability to bind to toxins in the body23.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, or simply 'AFA,' grows on the pristine volcanic waters of the Klamath Lake in Oregon. Commercial harvesting began in the early 1980s. Although contamination has been a concern, today companies like AFA, Inc., Mt. Shasta, CA, are micro-filtering for potential contaminants, and more nutraceutical companies are including AFA in their nutraceutical formulations. "AFA is one of the most bioavailable sources of nutrients due to its soft cell wall," explained Scott Springer, veteran AFA harvester and CEO of AFA, Inc. "Due to the lake's environment and volcanic lakebed, it has all of the essential amino acids (60% by weight), is packed with beta-carotene and many vitamins, has 58 minerals at ppm levels and has one of the highest chlorophyll levels."
Another exciting green microalgae is Haematococcus pluvialis, which is one of the highest known natural sources of astaxanthin. It is an "exciting new product for the nutrition industry because it has a growing base of scientific studies supporting its health benefits," said Dr. Cysewski.
Astaxanthin is an oxygenated carotenoid with high antioxidant properties, "some 500 times the antioxidant value of vitamin E," claims Laurence Sombardier, vice president and general manager of Mera Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Kailua Kona, HI, another leading natural astaxanthin producer. Recent studies have shown astaxanthin to be effective for reducing inflammation and stimulating the immune system. In vitro and in vivo studies have also shown anti-tumor effects, as well as effectiveness in preventing and treating retinal oxidative damage and macular degeneration24. The antioxidant and cancer inhibitory action of astaxanthin has also been shown to be greater than beta-carotene. "We've even had reports from marathoners and tri-athletes that it increases their exercise recovery rates," said Miguel Olaizola, PhD, Mera's director of research. Dr. Olaizola suggests dosages of 5 mg per day for a typical person and 10-15 mg for athletes or those with inflammation. Mera studied 30 people for 28 days and found up to 20 mg to be a safe dose.
Another company that is active on the astaxanthin front is Valensa, Eustis, FL, with its patented Zanthin ingredient. Zanthin is comprised of a standardized extract of astaxanthin complex. Valensa attributes astaxanthin's health benefits to the fact that it freely crosses the blood-brain and blood-retina barriers. Due to this ability, the company claims that astaxanthin can readily neutralize free-radicals and other reactive species in the eye and nervous system.
Valensa's brand of natural astaxanthin is manufactured from the microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis grown in closed culture using ultrapure water. Once the tough cell wall of the algae is cracked open it is highly unstable and must be extracted immediately. Valensa utilizes a proprietary extraction process to yield a stabilized and standardized 10% oleoresin. The 10% extracted oleoresin contains an astaxanthin complex composed of approximately 85-90% astaxanthin, 2% lutein, 2% beta-carotene and 6% various other carotenoids.
Astaxanthin is now a widely utilized ingredient in multivitamins, condition-specific formulas, single ingredient supplements and cosmeceuticals, such as sunscreens and lip balms. However, most astaxanthin players are hoping that astaxanthin will achieve GRAS status in the near future, so that its growth potential can be more fully realized.
Red Marine Algae
Red marine algae have become exciting nutraceuticals with confirmed health benefits. Attracting a lot interest lately is Dumontiae, a larger-leaf Rhodaphyte typically harvested in colder oceans either by wildcrafting or rope-farming. "Rope-farming is highly sustainable," says Bob "Desert" Nichols. Mr. Nichols claims he practically single-handedly developed the first commercial market for red marine algae under the Pure Planet label, a nutraceutical brand he founded in the mid-1990s. Dumontiae and other rhodophytes have been confirmed in vivo and in vitro to inhibit growth of several viruses, notably herpes simplex I and II, and HIV. Most studies have pointed to their heparin-like sulfated polysaccharide content for antiviral effects, blocking both DNA and retroviral replication. "We worked a lot with AIDS groups," says Mr. Nichols. "Word of mouth got out and we were able to help many AIDS and HIV sufferers."
Pure Planet is now owned and produced by Organic By Nature, Inc., a well-known supplier and contract-packer of various green food-based nutraceutical products. Organic By Nature's CEO, Dave Sandoval, claims that red marine algae is one of the company's largest revenue producers. "Just about all our distribution outlets carry our red marine algae because of its dedicated consumer base. We buy the algae in bulk leaf form, pulverize, screen and test it in-house for standardization," he says.
Now other rhodophytes are being studied for antiviral effects. Michael Neushul, PhD, from UC Santa Barbara's Biology Department has reported antiviral properties among all 39 California red marine algae varieties tested. Sulfated polysaccharides, such as carrageenan, were pointed to as the central antiviral constituents, as well as dextran sulfate and other heparinoids. Retrovirus inhibition and murine leukemia inhibition properties have also been shown in vivo28-30.
Red algae have several food uses as well. Gelatinous polysaccharides agar, carageenan and funoran are now used extensively in the food business as stabilizers. Agar contains calcium, iodine, bromine and other trace minerals. Some red algae also produce sorbitol, which is used as a sugar substitute. Due to such wide application, thousands of tons of various red algae are shipped into the U.S. every year for use in food manufacturing.
Sea Vegetables
There are about 1500 species of sea vegetables, many of which flourish in the cold waters of the North Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Well known sea vegetables include nori, wakame, dulse, kombu, Irish moss, sea palm and several species of laminaria. Though not particularly correct, most sea vegetables are often referred to as kelps.
Wild sea vegetables are harvested periodically and re-growth is managed carefully-easy to do since the kelp beds are stationary. Out of necessity, kelp farmers have sustainable supply, and some areas have more than enough to supply market growth. According to Bill Wolf, CEO of Thorvin Kelp, Inc., New Castle, VA, "We have enough kelp in our fjord (bay) in Iceland to easily supply several times the 1000 metric tons per year we're at now." Thorvin's harvesters "will GPS-map bloom locations and carefully cut each bed four to seven years apart, allowing it to re-grow between harvests," he said.
These sea vegetables have an impressive array of vitamins-more than most land-based vegetables-with A, B1, B2, B5, B12, C, B6, B3, folic acid, E, K and a steroid vitamin D precursor. Nori and dulse have beta-carotene levels as high as 50,000 IU per 100 grams, for example. Mr. Wolf says his certified organic kelps are showing 60 minerals at ppm levels. They are also good sources of calcium and magnesium. The brown algae also contain all the essential amino acids and are high in protein by weight, with nori as high as 30% and most averaging about 9%. Laminaria is also used to produce the sugar substitute mannitol23.
Although the GRAS standards refer to kelp as a good source of iodine (one reason for kelps being overlooked, say kelp producers), their nutritional muscle makes them versatile nutraceuticals. They are routinely used in skin care formulations, supplements, salt-substitutes (salty flavor is mostly potassium) and various food formulations. Sea vegetables also contain several beneficial polysaccharides and polyphenols. One such sulfated polysaccharide, fucoidan, has been shown to have anti-tumor, anticoagulant and anti-angiogenic properties. Studies show it also down-regulates Th2 (inhibiting allergic response), inhibits beta-amyloid formation (potential cause of Alzheimer's), inhibits proteinuria in Heymann nephritis and decreases artery platelet deposits in vivo25-27.NW
About the author: Casey Adams, IHD, AMP, is a doctor of integrative health and is board certified as an alternative medical practitioner. With many years of service in the organic, natural food, nutraceutical and herbal industries, he currently consults and conducts workshops at the Wellness & Rehabilitation Medical Center in Watsonville, CA. He can be reached at casey@realnaturalhealth.com.
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